Theological and Iconographic Meanings in the Erminia of the Polovragi Monastery’s Paintings

In accordance with the tradition of the Orthodox Church, iconography is far from being merely decorative, intended solely to satisfy the aesthetic sense. Essentially, church painting constitutes a veritable ‘theology in images’, encompassing a complex array of biblical, liturgical, dogmatic, hagiographic and ecclesiastical historical references and themes. In other words, ‘paintings give voice to monuments. They crystallise ideas, feelings and life; they are documents and sources of history. Iconography introduces us to the artistic world of our past’1

Indispensable from an ecclesiastical perspective, iconography encompasses a multitude of themes, possessing a complex history and following a well-established liturgical tradition. More than just an art form, Orthodox iconography represents a means to salvation, a catechetical opportunity to strengthen one’s faith, and a living defence of forms rich in substance and meanings that extend beyond image and form. In this regard, there is a complex theological hermeneutic, argued in the finest detail—from colour schemes to gestures and heraldry. In all its aspects, ecclesiastical iconographic art embodies a true ‘liberation from the tyranny of the senses’, confirming ‘the desire to see without being seen, to know without being known, to take without giving’. This paradoxical form of understanding brings to mind the Taboric metamorphosis, generating a true ‘shift in perception’ in the presence of the icon. ‘The message of the Transfiguration – that creation is an icon, a theophany, a glorious manifestation of God – can be overwhelming because of the responsibility it places upon our shoulders, for it tells us, in effect, that the squalid factories of Asia, the slums of America, and the lands bloodied by killings in the Middle East and Africa are themselves permeated by the uncreated light. To perceive such a truth and to see it even for a moment is perhaps more than most of us can bear. And if we could, what must we do to honour such a vision? …To see the light of Christ in all creation is also to see the suffering of all creation embodied in the Crucifixion, to perceive the paradox that Tabor and Golgotha are one and the same mountain. With such a vision before their eyes, such a stone beneath their feet, true disciples, enlightened, leave behind the comfort of the heights’2’.

I. The iconographic typology in the Romanian pictorial tradition

Following the Byzantine tradition and hermeneutics, church painting in the Romanian Lands adheres to a well-established iconographic typology, with its own particularities and specific features. For this reason, the chromatic details and Orthodox symbols, the images of the saints and the Mother of God, the biblical scenes from the life of Christ the Saviour, as well as other details in the mural painting are by no means placed at random, but follow a predefined canon or pattern. There is, however, a historical lineage in the development of the iconographic programme, varying from one region to another, as well as depending on the evolution of religious and ecclesiastical architecture, and the dimensions and surfaces designated for the pictorial work. ‘This was also influenced by the theological (dogmatic) ideas and movements that shaped Christian thought, the tastes and intentions of the church founders, who sometimes imposed their own preferences on the painters, and at other times even the imagination of the painters themselves, who had the opportunity to assert their identity in this field. A Christian basilica from the 4th–6th centuries was painted in one way, whilst a 14th-century Orthodox church was painted in another; a modest parish church is painted in one way, in one way a grand and sumptuous cathedral, and in another way a monastery or a chapel attached to a princely court, or a cemetery church, or a necropolis, in which faith and hope in the Resurrection play the leading role’3

The classical method of defining the Byzantine iconographic typology, which is specific in its entirety to Romanian places of worship, is based on the three elements of church architecture: the altar and the iconostasis (catapeteasma), the nave and the narthex, and the exterior surfaces. There is also a second approach to structuring and analysing church painting, grouped into three iconographic cycles: the dogmatic cycle; the liturgical cycle; and the feast cycle.

II. The iconographic canon according to the architectural ensemble

II.1. Altar painting

Altar painting encompasses the most sacred part of the church, the altar (Greek: bima, ierateion; Latin: sacrarium, altare) being the place where the Holy Sacrifice is performed during the Holy and Divine Liturgy. This is regarded as ‘the seat of the Divine, the meeting point of the divine and the human, of the supernatural and the natural, the boundary between heaven and earth, the gateway to eternity’4).

Within the Holy Altar, we find two categories of scenes and figures, which together constitute the classical iconographic programme of this liturgical and sacred space as follows: 1. Historical or symbolic scenes related to the liturgical event of the celebration of the Eucharistic Sacrifice; and 2. Portraits of bishops and clergy (concelebrating deacons) from the period of the Early Church, whose names are associated with the structure of the Divine Liturgy and the most important hymnographic compositions.

In the central apse of the Holy Altar, in the highest place, we will always find the Mother of God depicted as the Oranta or ‘Platitera ton Ouranon’ (‘Higher than the heavens’) or (in Latin) ‘Madona de majestate’. ‘In the first type, the Holy Virgin is usually depicted seated on a throne, as Queen of Heaven, just as the Prophet David saw her in the verse which the priest reads during the Proskomedia service: ‘The Queen stood at Your right hand, clothed in gold and exceedingly beautiful’ (Psalm XLIV, 11). In her arms, upon her knees, she holds the Infant Jesus, the Heavenly Bread, as He is called in the main prayer of the Proskomedia. Usually, two angels or archangels (Michael and Gabriel), in a posture of adoration, flank the image of the Mother of God, on the right and on the left. In some older churches in Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and southern Italy, alongside the angels, there are also images of saints who, in most cases, are the patron saints of the respective foundations, and, on occasion, even the figures of founders and donors appear, in an attitude of adoration. In Moldavian churches, such as the one at Moldovița, the figures of Saints Joachim and Anne, the parents of the Mother of God, can also be seen, whilst in Wallachian churches, such as the old Royal Church of Saint Nicholas in Curtea de Argeș, the Blessed Virgin is flanked on the right by the Archangel Michael and Saint Nicholas, the church’s patron saint, and on the left by the Archangel Gabriel and Saint John Chrysostom, all prostrating themselves before the Blessed Virgin. In churches painted in the 19th century (such as Antim in Bucharest), the Mother of God is flanked by David and Solomon5”.

Also in the Holy Altar, between the Mother of God and the lower register depicting the hierarchs, we find three liturgical themes: the Tabernacle, the Angelic Liturgy and the Communion of the Apostles. Furthermore, in the two apses we find several scenes with specific themes. Thus, in the Proskomidia Chamber, there may be painted ‘figures and scenes relating to the Nativity and Passion of the Lord, which are present in the Proskomidia ritual’: The Crucifixion, the Carrying of the Cross, the Entombment, the Saviour laid in the Holy Sepulchre, or the Pietà. A particularly notable feature is the scene of ‘the vision (or prophecy) of Saint Peter of Alexandria’, in which we find ‘Jesus, as a young man, standing on the Holy Table, with his tunic torn, whilst Saint Peter, the first Bishop of Alexandria who condemned Arius, asks Him: ‘Who has torn Your garment, Saviour?’, and Jesus replies: ‘Arius the madman’. The source of inspiration for this iconographic scene is a liturgical text from the service for the Sunday of the Holy Fathers, from the First Ecumenical Council (the Seventh Sunday after Easter)’6

In the Brâncoveanu churches of Oltenia—including, in addition to the Church of the Dormition of the Mother of God at Polovragi Monastery, the churches of Hurezi and Dintr-un Lemn, the following Eucharistic scene is painted in the apse of the Proskomidia: ‘Christ seated on a table or on the tomb, with the Cross behind Him; from His side springs a branch of the vine, which winds itself around the arms of the Cross or around the body of Jesus, and its clusters bend down to His hand, from which He squeezes wine (His blood), into the chalice (John 15:1)’7

In the apse opposite the Proskomidia, the one facing south, the painters’ guidelines recommend depicting Christ the Saviour as the ‘Angel of Great Counsel’, surrounded by the Holy Evangelists or Saint John the Baptist, as well as by Moses holding the Tablets of the Law in his hands. Other figures from the Old and New Testaments may also be depicted, such as: the Prophets, the Holy Apostles, the Holy Doctors Anarghiri, as well as scenes such as the Exaltation of the Holy Cross or the Dormition of the Mother of God.

II.2.1. The Altar of the Church of the ‘Dormition of the Mother of God’ at Polovragi Monastery

The Church of the ‘Dormition of the Mother of God’ at Polovragi Monastery boasts a truly distinctive iconography. A masterpiece of the Brâncoveanu School, completed on 11 September 1703 by the painters Andrei, Simeon, Istrate and Hranit8 the paintings closely follow the classical guidelines of the iconographic programme. Therefore, in what follows, following the architectural itinerary, we shall attempt to illustrate the iconographic composition for each individual structure.

On the upper register of the main apse (the large conch), we find a depiction of the Mother of God on the Throne or ‘Higher than the Heavens’ – Platitera ton Ouranon. The colour scheme beautifully combines princely red, dark blue and sky blue (for certain parts of the robes) and, in places, shades of pale green. The Mother of God is enthroned with the Infant in her arms; she, in turn, is the Throne of the Heavenly King. Her posture is solemn, upholding the divine presence of the Infant, Who bestows His blessing with His right hand. To the left and right of the Throne of the Most High stand the two Archangels, Michael and Gabriel, identified by the Greek initials Μ and Γ. Each of them, seated in a humble posture, points with outstretched hands towards the Mother of God and the Infant, thus signifying a full confession of their identity.

1. In the second register, from top to bottom, also on the vault of the Holy Altar, we find the scene of ‘The Apostles’ Communion’. Christ the Saviour, dressed in priestly vestments but without a mitre, sits before the Holy Table, depicted twice, on the left and on the right. The Holy Table is situated beneath a canopy, upon which the Holy Gospel lies open at the words: ‘Take, eat; this is My Body…’, ‘Drink from this, all of you; this is My Blood…’ (written in Church Slavonic). On the right-hand side, the Lord gives the Apostles His Body, whilst on the left, holding the Holy Chalice, He gives them His Blood. Here, too, pale red tones predominate, with the robes of the Saviour and the Apostles interspersed with shades of blue and green. Judas is also depicted in the scene, on the right-hand side, with his back turned towards the Saviour and, by implication, towards the Eucharist, which he spits out of his mouth and leaves the Last Supper (Matthew 16:14).

2. Also in the upper registers, continuing from the scene of ‘The Apostles’ Communion’, we find on the Triumphal Arch linking the Altar to the Iconostasis, several scenes depicting the miraculous healings performed by the Lord, as well as scenes from His life and that of the Mother of God, all grounded in and supported by Holy Scripture. Together, they form the ‘Sundays of the Pentecostarion’, a theme entirely unprecedented in the Brâncoveanu style, particularly at Polovragi Monastery. Thus, starting from the right and moving to the left, we have the scene of ‘The Presentation of the Mother of God in the Temple’ (in Church Slavonic: Blagovestia). Here, the Mother of God is entrusted by her Holy Parents, Joachim and Anna, to the high priest in the Temple in Jerusalem. Behind the Holy Parents is depicted the procession of ‘virgins’, who lead the Holy Infant up the steps of the Temple, just as the prophet Ezekiel once described: ‘The length of the porch was eleven cubits and its width twenty cubits. A staircase with ten steps led up to it. And beside the pillars were columns: one on one side and one on the other side of the entrance’ (Ezekiel XL, 49). Next, we also have: ‘The Healing of the Man with Dropsy’; ‘The Healing of the Paralysed Man’; ‘The Healing of the Man Born Blind’. On the left-hand side of the archway we find: ‘The Conversation with the Samaritan Woman’ and ‘The Birth of Saint John the Baptist’.

3. In the niche of the Proskomidia table is the image of ‘Jesus in the tomb’. Christ appears here naked, with the wounds in his hands and side visible and bleeding. The dominant colour is straw yellow, and the Lord’s face is marked by sadness and pain. His hands are clasped together; behind Him is painted the Holy Cross, and to His right and left are the Mother of God and Saint John the Evangelist.

4. To summarise what we have examined in detail so far, whilst adding a few minor points, we must note that the ‘Triumphal Arch’ of the Holy Altar ‘was frequently reserved, during the Brâncoveanu era, for the Sundays of the Pentecostarion and the scene of the Ascension of the Lord. These two themes are also found at Polovragi, on the arches of the altar vault. Whilst the Ascension, which appears on the triumphal arch in a number of Brâncoveanu-era churches, was a theme for the altar vault established as early as the Palaeologus era, the miracles of the Sundays of Pentecost began to form a distinct thematic cycle in the mural painting of Wallachia and to appear on the triumphal arch only from the Brâncoveanu era onwards. They are, in fact, depicted as a continuation of the scene of the Lord’s Resurrection, traditionally placed in the northern apse of the nave. At Polovragi, the Sundays of Pentecost are also accompanied by the icon of the ‘Halving of the Feast of Pentecost’, traditionally depicted as the scene in which the 12-year-old Jesus teaches the priests in the temple. The confusion in the image between these two distinct Gospel events—recounted in John 7:14–39, and Luke 2:41–52 respectively, dates back to the Middle Byzantine period; it was popularised by iconographers during the 14th century and has remained in the tradition as such. At Polovragi there is another scene which does not form part of the Proskomedia cycle: The Healing of the Man with Dropsy. It evocatively complements the series of miracles performed by Christ the Saviour through water, celebrated on the Sundays of the Pentecostarion: The Healing of the Blind Man, The Healing of the Paralytic, The Conversation with the Samaritan Woman at Jacob’s Well, as well as the central theme of the Mid-Pentecost Feast, that of the glorification of Christ as the ‘Fountain of Life’9”.

5. The lower register of the Altar follows the traditional scheme, with the Bishops who composed the Divine Liturgies depicted here: Saint John Chrysostom, Saint Basil the Great and Saint Gregory the Dialogist, alongside Saint Spyridon of Trimitunda or Saint Athanasius the Great.

II.3. The frieze of the temple or the catapetesma

It comprises several registers, superimposed vertically and delimited horizontally, beginning with: the Royal Doors, the Last Supper and (at the top) the Holy Cross. The great Romanian liturgist, Father Professor Ene Braniște, speaks in this regard of a ‘classical (normative) programme’ for the iconography of the catapetesma, to which we shall also refer. ‘The evolution of the iconography of the catapetesma as we know it today begins with the icons of the Saviour, the Holy Virgin, the Holy Angels and the Holy Apostles (mentioned in documents as early as the 6th century), as well as the Deesis icon (prayer, intercession), mentioned in the 7th century. These icons originally adorned the columns supporting the partition between the sanctuary and the nave, as well as the architrave (horizontal beam) above it, in the early Christian churches. However, this evolution was not completed until the 16th century, when the iconographic programme of Orthodox churches took its definitive form and began to be codified in the form of written rules, in the so-called ‘herminia’ (guidelines) for icon painters. Consequently, the iconography of the church has, ever since the time of its complete and definitive formation, conformed to precise rules and has remained stable and uniform to this day in all Orthodox churches built or painted from the 16th century onwards. ‘With the exception of the altar, no other part or surface of the interior of Orthodox churches exhibits greater uniformity and stability in terms of iconographic decoration’10

In a brief description of the iconography of the catapetesma, we must note, by register, the following structural composition, divided horizontally from the Holy Royal Doors: the lower register – or that of the Royal Icons: the Saviour (on the right); the Mother of God (on the left); the icon of the first patron saint (on the right); St John the Baptist or the icon of the second patronal feast (on the left). The second register, or that of the feast-day icons, comprises the 12 great feasts of Orthodoxy, arranged according to the chronology of the liturgical year: the Nativity of the Mother of God (8 September); The Exaltation of the Holy Cross (14 September); The Entry into the Church or the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin in the Temple (21 November); The Nativity of the Lord (25 December); The Baptism of the Lord (6 January); The Meeting of the Lord (2 February); the Annunciation (25 March); Palm Sunday or the Entry into Jerusalem (the Sunday before Easter); the Ascension of the Lord (Thursday in the sixth week after Easter); The Descent of the Holy Spirit or Pentecost (Pentecost Sunday, the eighth Sunday after Easter); the Transfiguration (6 August) and the Dormition of the Mother of God (15 August). At their centre is the icon of the Great Feast of the Resurrection of the Lord; above it is the Last Supper, and below the Holy Cross is the Crucifixion.

On the middle register (the second from the bottom) we find the 12 Holy Apostles depicted. In the centre of these is the icon of Christ the Saviour as High Priest, King or Teacher, flanked on either side by the Mother of God and Saint John the Baptist.

The third register, the uppermost one, brings together the figures of the 12 Prophets of the Old Testament, with the Mother of God in the centre, holding the Infant in her arms, about whom they all prophesied. We should also mention here the patriarchs and the righteous men of the Old Law: Aaron, Moses, Gideon, David, etc.

‘In Romanian churches,’ says Rev. Prof. Dr Ene Braniște, ‘as a rule, the three registers of icons are of equal size, and the icons that adorn them are also of uniform size, being painted directly onto the wooden or wall surface of the iconostasis, or they are removable icons, round or square, which fit into the niches in the wall of the iconostasis and can be removed if necessary, to be washed, restored or replaced. Each holy figure occupies a single icon (a rectangular panel or a round medallion); more rarely, the Apostles and Prophets are grouped in pairs within a single icon, either due to lack of space or for historical reasons”11

II.4. The painting of the naos and the narthex

The painting of the nave and narthex centres on the Pantocrator. As the highest point of the church, Jesus Christ the Almighty (Παντοκρατωρ) constitutes “the most important element of the Orthodox church, particularly of Orthodox churches built on a Greek cross plan, towards this dome all architectural lines converge and all the eyes of the faithful within the holy place are directed”. In this marvellous iconographic creation, Christ is the One who blesses His creation, watching over the whole of visible creation from the heights of His sanctuary, as professed in the Creed: ‘The Maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible’. The painters depict the Pantocrator in a ‘bust’ style, with His gaze directed towards those in the church. The iconographic style of the Pantocrator in Romanian Orthodox churches follows the Eastern tradition, with the Lord depicted as having ‘a brown complexion, black eyes, a black beard, fine yet stern features, a serious yet yet gentle. In his left hand he holds the Holy Gospel open, on which the initials A and Ω (the beginning and the end) are inscribed, whilst with his right hand he bestows a blessing. The image of the Pantocrator is most often depicted within a circular medallion, encircled by a multicoloured rainbow, around which various biblical or liturgical phrases are inscribed”12.

Starting with the Pantocrator, the structure of the iconographic typikon for the naos and the narthex of an Orthodox church is analysed. Thus, from top to bottom, within the dome, we find several possible iconographic representations, such as:

· the faces of the Minor Prophets (usually 12 in number): Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi, followed by the Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel; then by the earlier Prophets: Saints Elijah and Elisha; and by other prophets, such as: Gideon, Baruch, Ahijah, Joad13;

· The Divine Liturgy or Heavenly Liturgy, in which the Saviour is depicted as High Priest, standing before the Holy Table with the Holy Gospel before him, or giving Communion to the Holy Apostles. It is a rather rare scene, given its position on the third level of the bell tower, and is found only in a few of Romania’s historically significant churches, such as those in Snagov (19th century) and Mofleni, near Craiova (17th century).

· At the base of the tower, in the four corners, the faces of the Holy Evangelists are depicted in pendentives, accompanied by their zoomorphic symbols: Matthew – the angel; Mark – the lion; Luke – the calf; and John – the eagle.

· On the surface of the large arches at the base of the tower, we also find, in some Romanian churches, several elements with biblical themes painted, such as: the Holy Mandylion (or the Image not made by human hands); the Holy Brick (the icon of Abgar of Edessa); prophets holding scrolls containing prophecies about the feast days, which are to be painted immediately beneath them.

II.5. The painting of the naos or the ‘heart of the church’

It is situated between the iconostasis and the narthex. From a liturgical perspective, the naos is ‘the part reserved for the faithful’, symbolically representing ‘the earthly Church, the visible world, organised within the Christian universe of grace’14). For this reason, the iconographic scheme or typology of this space has a catechetical dimension, comprising biblical scenes designed to reinforce the truths of the faith, through which each of those who come to pray must be strengthened. “In this part of the holy sanctuary,” says Father Professor Ene Braniște, – the painters’ personalities, tastes and talents, their level of theological knowledge and their imagination were able to unfold more freely than in the decoration of the altar, the iconostasis or the great dome, where the iconographic scheme is more fixed and uniform. For this reason, not even the authors of Byzantine treatises on painting provide a standard iconographic programme for the nave, but are content to offer a few general guidelines on the thematic cycles that may be depicted on the walls of the nave’15”.

We shall now examine a few specific features:

· the large arches of the nave are generally painted with scenes relating to the themes of the Holy Trinity, the Incarnation and the Liturgical Sacrifice. There is also the possibility of finding: the figure of Saint John the Baptist ‘with wings’ (e.g. the church in Bălinești); figures of the prophets (at Popăuți, in Moldova); the Transfiguration of the Lord, the Appearance to the Myrrh-bearing Women; the Doubt of Thomas; the Ascension into Heaven, etc.

· On the vaults of the nave, we traditionally find the following scenes: the Nativity (in the southern apse); the Resurrection or the Descent into Hell (in the northern apse). ‘On the remaining surfaces of the apses and the vertical walls of the nave, in the same style (in the upper section), scenes are painted illustrating key moments from the Saviour’s life or from His ministry, parables and miracles, so that, around the central icon of the Nativity in the semi-dome of the southern apse, moments and events relating to the Nativity, the Annunciation (Luke 1:26–36), the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin to Saint Elizabeth (Luke 1:39–56), the Magi from the East, the Flight into Egypt, whilst on the north wall, scenes and episodes relating to the Passion and the Resurrection will be grouped: Jesus’ Entry into Jerusalem, the Last Supper, the Prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane, the Arrest and Trial of Jesus, the Passion, the Carrying of the Cross, the Crucifixion, the Descent from the Cross, the Post-Resurrection Appearances, and Thomas Sunday (John 20:24–29)’16 There are, of course, exceptions to the positioning of the scenes, which are not always depicted with the same regularity, but vary from place to place. We have, for example, the case of Hurezi Monastery, where the Resurrection is painted on the northern vault, whilst on the southern vault we find the scene of the Second Coming of the Lord.

· The walls of the nave also feature a variety of biblical scenes from the life of Christ the Saviour (in the middle register – the most important scene being, of course, the Deesis), as well as a whole range of hagiographic scenes (in the lower register). Among the most frequently depicted saints in the nave are the Military Saints (George, Demetrius, Theodore Tyron, Theodore Stratilates, Mercury, James the Persian) and the Unmercenary Healers (Cosmas and Damian, Cyrus and John, Panteleimon and Hermolaos, Samson and Diomedes, Talaleus and Tryphon).

· On the eastern surface of the partition wall between the nave and the narthex (where one exists), above the doors, we will always find the scene of the Dormition of the Mother of God in the upper register, whilst the lower register features the ‘frieze of the founders’.

To conclude the points outlined in detail above, Professor Ene Braniște succinctly summarises the entire iconographic programme of the naos as follows: ‘on the north wall, the Resurrection of the Lord is depicted, and on the south wall, the Nativity; in the central section, on the north wall, above the left-hand pew, the Mother of God as Empress, seated on a throne and flanked by two archangels, and on the opposite side, on the upper wall, above the right-hand pew, the Saviour, robed as a High Priest, seated on a throne, with Saint John the Baptist at his right-hand side—that is, the iconographic theme we have termed the Deesis (in some churches, however, the Crucifixion or the Descent from the Cross is painted in this place). In the lower section, on the upper wall, military saints such as Saints Demetrius and George and the Holy Emperors Constantine and Helena are depicted, with the Holy Cross between them, whilst on the north wall, other saints, among the most revered by the people, such as Saint Nicholas or Saint Paraskevi, are depicted. On the pulpit, if there is one, the Holy Evangelists are depicted with their symbols, and on the wall next to the pulpit, above it, Saint John Chrysostom17”.

II.6. The Painting of the Pronaos

The painting of the Pronaos (the church porch, narthex or nartica) is situated between the naos and the entrance door to the holy place. The iconographic programme of the pronaos is described very explicitly and clearly in Erminia Zugravilor 18: ‘If there are two vaults, the first is painted with the scene of “All Creatures” (Psalm CXLVIII): a heaven, in the centre of which Christ is enthroned, surrounded by angels and circles of saints of all kinds; in some churches, added to this scene in a circle at the edge of the sky, are depictions of domestic and wild animals of all kinds (birds, reptiles), trees, mountains and hills, the sun and the moon, thus illustrating the participation or collaboration of the world, of nature and of all creation in the glorification of God, alongside people and saints. The Zodiac (the Wheel of the World or the cycle of the months and seasons of the year) also appears at times. On the second vault, another sky is depicted, illustrating the liturgical Axion from the Liturgy of Saint Basil the Great (‘In You we rejoice…’). In the centre, the Holy Virgin is enthroned in prayer, with her hands outstretched in supplication and protection… If there is a single vault, the image of the Holy Virgin in prayer is usually painted upon it, with or without the medallion of the Infant on her chest. In older churches, however, we find here Jesus-Emmanuel, the Ancient of Days, or the Holy Trinity in the form of Abraham’s Philoxenia… Below, on the apses, on the side walls—which are also divided into several zones or longitudinal registers, just as in the nave—the upper section depicts the Ecumenical Councils or the Seven Universal Councils, whilst the registers below depict the Synaxarion (Minei), that is, key scenes from the lives and sufferings of the holy martyrs in the calendar, painted in panels of varying sizes. The depiction of the Minee usually begins in September, on the eastern wall of the narthex, to the left of the entrance to the nave. Each panel depicts a characteristic moment or event in the life of the respective saint; a brief inscription indicates the day and month on which the saint was martyred and is commemorated… The votive painting of the church’s founder, prostrating himself before the Saviour or offering Him as a gift the church he has built, and sometimes even the likenesses of donors (as in the church of Mamu Monastery), usually occupies the lower section of the west wall of the narthex, on either side of the entrance door … The iconographic programme of the narthex, described thus far and recommended by the painters’ manuals, is faithfully applied in the churches of the era of Saint Constantin Brâncoveanu, such as, for example, the group of churches at Hurezi and Polovragi, or the church of the former monastery at Baia de Aramă, built in 1699”19

II.7. The Nave of the Church of the ‘Dormition of the Mother of God’ – Polovragi Monastery

Following the classical iconography of Byzantine painting, the naos of the Church of the ‘Dormition of the Mother of God’ at Polovragi Monastery takes as its focal point the vault of the large dome, on which we find the painting of the Pantocrator. This is followed by a complete sequence across the registers, featuring groups of archangels, prophets and apostles, whilst the arches of the vaults depict the saints from the group of the Forty Martyrs. The upper parts of the nave, or the two large apses to the left and right of the sanctuary, depict several key scenes from the history of our salvation: The Transfiguration – a Parusian feast of Christ the Saviour – and the Lord’s Descent into Hell or the Crucifixion. Here too, in the lower registers, we find ‘two registers each of Gospel scenes, comprising miracles and royal feasts, and moments from the Passion, respectively’. Notable among the Gospel scenes is the Massacre of the Innocents, a theme developed narratively by the Cretan painter Theophanes at the Great Lavra on Mount Athos, and subsequently adopted by the Epirus painters and the Greek team led by the painter Constantinos, who used it at the Church of the Lady and at Hurezi’20.

1. The Pantocrator is the fresco that occupies the highest position in the church. The depiction is classical, with Jesus Christ identified by the traditional Greek abbreviated characters: IC XC Ο ΠΑΝΤΟΚΡΑΤΟΡ. With his right hand he blesses, whilst with his left he holds the Holy Gospel closed. His garments are dark in colour, the cloak being painted brown. Beneath the cloak, which covers most of His body, a red tunic is faintly visible. The general background against which the fresco is depicted is a dark blue, dotted with golden stars. The image of the Pantocrator at Polovragi is surrounded by a rainbow-coloured circle, in which the colours transition from the outer edge towards the centre of the image, ranging from dark red, light red, dark and light blue, to light brown.

2. The Prophets and the angels are found in the southern apse of the nave. We can make out the Prophets—Micah, Jonah or Haggai—depicted in full-length, standing figures. They hold open scrolls, inscribed with the prophecies they revealed concerning the Person and coming of Christ the Saviour. The angels are depicted with the features of archangels, though they are not identified by name. They hold in their hands globes marked with the monogram of Christ (XP) and long spears. The colour scheme varies, being particularly evident in the robes worn by both the prophets and the angels: red, crimson, mauve or sky-blue.

3. The Massacre of the Innocents is one of the scenes that characterises the distinctive style of Constantinos’s school. This iconographic detail is found, as mentioned earlier, initially at the Athonite monastery of Pantocrator, and was adopted by Constantinos and his pupils and applied at the monasteries of Hurezi and Polovragi, as well as at the Church of the Lady in Bucharest. The scene unfolds in four sequences, beginning in the left-hand corner, where we find Herod ordering his soldiers to begin the massacre. Also at the top, in the right-hand corner, is a sequence depicting the Mother of God sheltered in a mountain cave and spared from the sword of the infanticides. At the bottom, the iconographer depicts the massacre of the 14,000 infants slain by the sword at Herod’s command, in an attempt to capture Christ.

4. The Holy Hierarchs, the Holy Evangelists and saints from among the Forty Martyrs, and Christ on trial before Pilate are the detailed elements in the lower registers at the base of the nave’s large dome. Here, in accordance with Byzantine iconography, we find the classical depictions of the four Evangelists, arranged in a continuous frieze that encircles the entire base of the tower. Near each of them, within a separate medallion designed to distinguish their identity, we find the symbols of the Holy Evangelists: the Angel, the Lion, the Eagle and the Ox. This substantial scene is flanked at the top by the faces of the hierarchs, and at the bottom by the faces of some of the Forty Holy Martyrs, all iconographically arranged in round medallions and identified with Slavonic characters. Beneath the holy martyrs, at the base of the dome and on the western tympanum, a biblical scene is depicted: ‘Christ Judged by Pilate’. Here the Lord is depicted naked before the Roman procurator; the scenes of his being brought before Annas, Caiaphas and Herod are also depicted (in the associated scenes). The crowd is present, gesticulating with their hands to indicate ‘the Lord’s guilt’, and the soldiers with swords and the city in the background are also depicted. A notable detail is the presence of the Prophet David holding an open scroll, thus signifying the prophecy of the judgement of Christ the Saviour: ‘He was judged by the lawless!’.

5. The scenes from the life of the righteous Patriarch Joseph are found on the western wall of the nave. This is indeed a distinctive feature of the painting at Polovragi Monastery. It unfolds in four episodes, being liturgically commemorated in the Matins service on Great Monday of Holy Week and implicitly linked to the subsequent scenes depicting the Passion of Christ, which are depicted in detail below. ‘The cycle depicting the life of the most beautiful Joseph is a rare feature in Byzantine-style mural painting. Whilst in the early Byzantine centuries the Book of Genesis had been extensively illustrated, particularly in liturgical manuscripts, during the Middle Ages Old Testament narrative depictions diminished considerably. The cycle of the Patriarch Joseph appears in the murals of the Church of Saint Nicholas at the Phalianthropinon Monastery (Ioannina), in the 16th century, and in the 17th century at the Church of the Nativity of the Lord in Arbanasi (Bulgaria). The iconographic source of the cycle at Polovragi, however, differs from these works. As recently as 1700, the Triodion was printed at the Diocese of Buzău, with engravings by Ioanichie Bakov, a Ukrainian engraver, who used engravings from books printed in Kyiv as his models. The Buzău Triodion was engraved with a number of illustrations, including four scenes from the life of Joseph, illustrating the synaxarion for the Matins service on Great Monday. The gestures of the figures in the engraved illustrations of Joseph’s life from the Triodion and the setting in which the actions take place were reproduced in the murals at Polovragi, but the painters omitted the Western stylistic elements found in the Ukrainian engraver’s compositions; the scenes were rendered in the manner of the Brâncoveanu school of painters, so as to blend in with the overall pictorial style21”.

6. The themes of the Lenten services during Holy Week: The Parable of the Ten Virgins; The Cursing of the Fig Tree, The Hanging of Judas, and, nearby, The Sinful Woman are depicted in the apse of the western wall of the naos, immediately below the narrative scenes from ‘The Life of Patriarch Joseph’. ‘A recurring theme of the Maundy Thursday service—the condemnation of the deadly love of money—is illustrated at Polovragi through the juxtaposition of the scene of the Hanging of Judas and the Encounter between the tax collector Zacchaeus and Christ’, contrasting the fates of the one saved from the passion of the love of money and the one lost to it. In the tympanum of the western wall, an elaborate scene depicting the Judgement of Christ by Pilate has been painted, in which the Roman governor and the Pharisees of the Sanhedrin each deliver their verdict. Above, on the vaults, are depicted the episodes of the Scourging, the Mocking and Peter’s Denial. The entire iconographic structure evokes the episodes from the Matins service of the Twelve Gospels on Good Friday. Beside it, The Sleep of Jesus—an image also found at Hurezi amongst the scenes of the Passion cycle—summarises the theme of the services of Great Saturday22”.

7. The Cycle of the Passion of Christ comprises 10 panels, arranged within the second register of the south and north apses, beneath the Cycle of the Lenten Services of Holy Week. From left to right, top to bottom, we thus find the following depictions: The Washing of the Feet; The Prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane; The Arrest of Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane; Jesus before Herod; Jesus on the Way of the Cross; Jesus crucified between the thieves; The Descent from the Cross; The Entombment; The Sealing of the Tomb; The Myrrh-Bearers at the Empty Tomb.

The Cycle of the Passion of the Lord at Polovragi is a veritable display of iconographic details and themes. The image of Christ dominates the entire mural ensemble, successfully weaving together the narrative thread of the pictorial sequence from beginning to end. The sequence of events depicted by the painter is, of course, based on the Gospels, contextualising each moment described in Holy Scripture within the event itself. Thus, we can highlight the following details, corresponding to each scene:

a. We see the Saviour Christ standing before the Apostles, explaining to Peter why it is necessary for him to allow Him to wash his feet. He is girded with a white towel, standing with His hand raised before the Apostles, who are already taking off their sandals. The first among them is Saint Peter the Apostle, depicted with grey hair, as the eldest of the Disciples (the chief). The general composition shows a house with a porch, thus representing the Upper Room of the Last Supper. The scene of the washing of the Disciples’ feet is described in detail in the Gospel of John (XIII, 5–15).

b. The Prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane depicts the Lord Christ on a high mountain, shown in conversation with the Father, with an angel present there holding a red cloth to wipe away the drops of sweat that have turned to blood. At the foot of the mountain, the disciples are depicted lying together asleep, thus expressing the words of the Gospel: ‘You are asleep; could you not even keep watch with Me for one hour?’ (Luke XXII, 46).

c. The arrest of Jesus is also depicted in great detail. The soldiers who have come with swords and clubs to arrest Him are clearly distinguishable. Christ stretches out His hands and those who have come bind Him. Judas is also present, kissing Him on the cheek; he is depicted here without a halo, a sign of his fall from the apostleship. Saint Peter the Apostle, also present in the scene, intervenes and cuts off the ear of the high priest’s servant, whose name was Malchus (Matthew 26:51; Mark 14:47; Luke 22:50; John 18:10).

d. The scene of Jesus before Pilate also features a substantial gathering of figures: in the centre is Jesus, flanked by soldiers and Pharisees, whilst Pilate sits on his throne, washing his hands to absolve himself of any moral responsibility before the people. In front of Pilate’s throne is depicted a table on which lies a scroll bearing the charge against Christ the Saviour. The iconographic setting is that of the imperial palace, which can be seen in the background.

e. The Way of the Cross is depicted with Christ bound at the hands and carried by a soldier, who drags Him forward with a rope. Behind Him are other soldiers, who guard Him with spears. In front of the Lord we see Simon of Cyrene, who carries the Cross under which he had previously fallen (Matthew XXVII, 32). In the background are depicted the two thieves, who are also on their way to crucifixion, followed by the Mother of God and the other myrrh-bearing women, who were accompanying Him from a distance.

f. The Crucifixion between the two thieves is another iconographic theme from the Passion Cycle. The Lord’s posture on the Cross is one of embrace. This time He is depicted naked, with the sign bearing the mocking inscription ‘King of the Jews’ above His head. Standing beside Him, apart from the two crucified thieves, are His Mother, Saint John the Evangelist and the other myrrh-bearing women, as well as the Pharisee Nicodemus, His secret friend.

g. The Descent from the Cross is significant for the expression of grief it conveys. The Lord of the Resurrection is taken down, dead, from the instrument of torture, which His blood has transformed into an Altar of salvation. Also present are: the Mother of God, Nicodemus the Pharisee, John the Evangelist, the myrrh-bearing women, and other ministers who take Him down.

h. The Entombment is once again rendered with a wholly distinctive expressiveness. The Mother of God embraces her dead Son. Beside her we find Saint John the Evangelist, as well as the Pharisees Joseph and Nicodemus, depicted here with the halos of saints. Their presence is liturgically recorded in the troparion of the Entombment: ‘Joseph, the man of good countenance, took Your Most Pure Body from the cross, wrapped It in a clean shroud and laid It in a new tomb with fragrant spices’.

i. The sealing of the tomb shows us once more the soldiers gathered to carry out the command of the Jews, confirmed and formalised by Pilate: ‘and he rolled a stone against the entrance to the tomb’ (Mark 15:46).

j. The Myrrh-Bearers at the empty tomb depicts Mary Magdalene and the other women, the myrrh-bearers, in conversation with the angel who shows them the empty shrouds and the tomb without its stone, open and unoccupied. The scene follows the biblical account in Mark, where the following is recounted: ‘And they said to one another, “Who will roll away the stone for us from the entrance to the tomb?” But, lifting up their eyes, they saw that the stone had been rolled away; for it was very large. And, entering the tomb, they saw a young man sitting on the right-hand side, dressed in a white robe, and they were terrified’ (Mark 16:3–5).

8. The iconographic and iconological completion of the ‘Cycle of the Passion’ is contained in the scene of the ‘Descent of the Lord into Hell’, which is found in the concave of the northern apse. It concludes both the ‘narrative cycle of the Passion’ and the ‘liturgical cycle of the Triodion’, serving as an illustration of the feast of Holy Resurrection Sunday. Within the scene, as at Hurezi, the prophet Hosea is depicted holding a phylactery on which is written: ‘Where is your sting, O death?’ (Hosea XIII, 14), a prophecy revisited in the homily of Saint John Chrysostom, read each time at the end of the Paschal Matins.

9. In the southern niche we find the depiction of ‘The Transfiguration of the Lord’. As this is, in fact, a painting from a monastery, this iconographic depiction is of great importance, and we shall therefore devote a more extensive series of iconological explanations to it, endeavouring to identify the Hesychast characteristics that the painter succeeded in conveying at Polovragi. Thus, looking at the scene of the Transfiguration of the Lord at Polovragi Monastery, we can distinguish the two classical planes: three figures at the top and three at the bottom. In particular, the scene encompasses the two moments preceding and following the event: Jesus is depicted ascending Mount Tabor in the company of the three Disciples and, subsequently, descending from the mountain together with them. It is also worth noting that there is ‘a marked difference in attitude’ between the two main planes of the depiction. ‘At the summit of the mountain, Moses and Elijah stand on either side of Christ; they are enveloped in the circle of light and share in the Glory of God in perfect harmony with Him, whilst the Apostles, situated at the bottom of the icon, at the foot of the mountain, are overwhelmed and their demeanour expresses confusion and disorder. This contrast serves as a reminder that man cannot see God with his physical eyes’. Moses and Elijah, together with the prophet Isaiah, are the only human beings who, following the Fall of our first parents, were granted permission to see God 23. Moreover, at that moment they were in the mystical communion of the light of divine grace. Their eyes beheld the Sun of Righteousness from another world, each thus becoming a fulfilled type of the promises God had once made to His chosen people. ‘Moses and Elijah bow down before Jesus. Moses embodies the Law, whilst Elijah comes in the name of the prophets to bear witness, together with them, to the divinity of Christ, Who is “the fulfilment of the Law and the Prophets”.’ On the other hand, the Apostles’ eyes are dazzled by the light and radiance of divine grace. Nevertheless, “at the sight of Christ in glory, they are filled with joy and wish to hold this moment in place. Peter asks to remain on the mountain forever and, for this reason, proposes to build three huts, three tents there, so that they might dwell eternally in the presence of God. He did not know what he was saying, for it was too soon, and they were not ready for eternity. They had to pass through death with Christ in order to see Him again in glory, after the Resurrection”24 The icon of the Transfiguration of the Lord shows us that the eschatological power of the icon stems from the synergy of grace which it shares. Its light never comes from without, for, being filled with divine grace, it always shines from within. Therefore, it may be said that ‘the iconographer paints with the light of Tabor’. Thus, according to the ancient rule, ‘every iconographer monk paints his first icon with the subject of the Transfiguration of the Lord, so that Christ “may shine His light into the iconographer’s soul”’. This particularly profound aspect is evident from a manuscript from the Holy Mountain, from which we learn that the one dedicated to this ministry must ‘pray with fervent tears, that God may enter his soul. He must go to the priest, so that the priest may pray over him and read the Prayer of the Transfiguration to him”.

10. The lower register of the nave is completed by the following scenes: the Deesis, the Mother of God with the Infant accompanied by angels, as well as the military saints, the unmercenary doctors and the ascetics: Procopius; Theodore the Stratelates; Govdela; Christopher or Theoctistus. We offer the following explanations here: ‘the lower register of the nave features, alongside the traditional Deisis scene and an image of the Mother of God with the Infant accompanied by angels, drawn from the repertoire of Greek painting, with depictions of holy martyrs, grouped, according to tradition, into the categories of soldiers, doctors who practise for free, and courtiers. Saint Procopius the Martyr, depicted in the southern apse, bears the inscription on his belt: ‘Behold, this is good’ (… and what is beautiful, save that brothers dwell together). This phrase from the Psalms (Ps. 132:1) alludes to Saint Procopius’s status as one of the patron saints of the Sacrament of Matrimony. However, the presence of Saint Procopius as a martyr in a monastery church, bearing this inscription, also carries another significance, namely that of extolling the values of communal monastic life. Archimandrite Ioan, abbot of Hurezi and supervisor of the paintings at Polovragi, had been brought by Saint Constantine Brâncoveanu from the Negru Vodă Monastery in Câmpulung, which had been established by Matei Basarab as a true communal monastery. Prince Saint Constantine Brâncoveanu, for his part, had wished to establish a communal monastery at Hurezi, given the well-known recurring idiorhythmic tendencies within medieval Wallachian monasticism. In this context, the psaltic eulogy found at Polovragi in the inscription dedicated to Saint Procopius – who was the second patron saint of Hurezi Monastery, after that of the Holy Emperors – seems to take on the significance of a heartfelt exhortation to cherish the values of communal monastic life. The lintel of the nave door is painted with two symmetrical images: that of Saint Christopher carrying the Infant Jesus on his back, and that of Saint Theoktist, also depicted as a Christ-bearer. Unprecedented in Wallachia, they appear to derive from the repertoire of Greek painters. Since the synaxaria do not contain such a hagiographic episode associated with any of the saints named Theoktist, it is possible that the figure depicted here is the hymnographer Theoktist the Studite, a 14th-century Hesychast saint and author of a ‘Canon of Humility to Christ’. The saint’s head is covered with a black kamelafka, an iconographic element absent from the depictions of the early ascetics”25

II.8. The Narthex of the Church of the ‘Dormition of the Mother of God’ – Polovragi Monastery

From an architectural point of view, the narthex of the Polovragi Monastery Church is a faithful reproduction of the original 16th-century plan of the church. For this reason, whilst its architectural appearance is atypical of the Brâncoveanu period, the iconography of the narthex is dominated by several major themes, arranged symmetrically across the broad surfaces of the vault:

1. The Mother of God surrounded by prophets is a classic Brâncoveanu-style rendering of the mural icon known as the Mother of God Platitera or Oranta. Its distinctive feature, however, lies in the general background, in which we find the Old Testament prophets holding the manuscripts of the prophecies they proclaimed about her in ancient times. The colours used to depict the Blessed Virgin are warm, with a predominance of red (the colour of the mantle in which she is clothed). Her hands are raised in a prayerful posture; her countenance is warm, and her gaze is gentle. The Infant blesses with his right hand, clad in a yellow mantle. The central medallion in which she is depicted is flanked by four cherubim, holding globes and spears in their hands. In the immediately adjacent geometric space, the Old Testament prophets are depicted in two rows, four in each.

2. All Saints’ Sunday is depicted on the eastern wall (top) of the narthex. This is a theme introduced by the Greek painters at Hurezi, reinforced hymnographically by the liturgical message ‘Rejoice in Him!’. On the side walls appears the ‘Akathist Hymn’ ‘in compositional variations similar to those painted in the narthex of the church at Hurezi Monastery’26).

3. The lower section of the narthex walls is devoted exclusively to votive paintings commissioned by the founders. Depicted here are the boyars: Danciu Pârâianu and his sister, Stanca, the boyars Petru Barbu and Preda, and Danciu’s descendants, who “ceded their founding rights to Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu, who is in turn depicted here as the new founder alongside Lady Maria, together with Archimandrite Ioan of Hurezi Monastery and Teodosie, Metropolitan of Ungrovlahia”. Also listed amongst the founders is Prince Matei Basarab, who was on the throne at the time of the initial consecration of Polovragi Monastery.

4. The inscription is situated above the entrance door and details all the historical stages the monastery has undergone, from its foundation, through to the reign of Matei Basarab, and on to its recovery from the Patriarchate of Jerusalem, its restoration, and its consecration as a metochion of Hurezi Monastery during the reign of Saint Constantin Brâncoveanu.

5. Among the holy monks depicted on the window lintels in the narthex are Saint Gregory the Decapolite and Saint Nicodimus of Tismana. Both are part of the monastic tradition of Oltenia, which they have providentially shaped over the centuries. The relics of Saint Gregory the Decapolite are housed at Bistrița Monastery in Vâlcea County. Furthermore, Saint Nicodemus of Tismana is the founder and patron of monasticism in Oltenia, having founded the monasteries of Vodița, Topolnița, Vișina, Tismana and Prislop. Consequently, the iconographic rationale behind the joint depiction of these two holy monks in the narthex of the church at Polovragi Monastery is to emphasise the spiritual lineage linking the monks here to the Fathers of monasticism in Oltenia.

II.9. The Narthex

The porch of the Church of the ‘Dormition of the Mother of God’ at Polovragi Monastery is a feature of great iconographic value, whilst also serving as a benchmark for recognising the authentic Brâncoveanu style. It was evidently added during the Brâncoveanu period and has been preserved to this day in its classic, original form – open, supported by columns. ‘The iconographic programme of the porch consists, for the most part, of themes that have become traditional in Brâncoveanu-style porch painting, such as Jesus Emmanuel surrounded by angelic choirs, depicted wearing a mitre; episodes from the first chapter of Genesis; the patronal icon – the Dormition of the Mother of God – painted above the entrance, and the Martyrdom of the Apostles, a theme developed in the post-Byzantine Greek tradition and already introduced into Brâncoveanu-style painting by Constantinos’s team of painters, at the Church of the Lady in Hurezi and at the church of Mamu Monastery (1699)’27.

We shall now attempt to provide a brief iconographic description of this space:

1. On the lintel of the church entrance door, in the porch, we find the patronal icon – ‘The Dormition of the Mother of God’ – painted as a fresco. Its creator, the painter Constantin, placed it here almost a decade (1711–1712) after the church was actually built, having probably been specially commissioned by Archimandrite Ioan of Hurezi.

2. The monasteries of the Holy Mountain are depicted on the eastern wall of the narthex, to the left and right of the main entrance to the church. These depictions were based on the engravings in the Proschinitar of Mount Athos, ‘a pilgrimage guide commissioned by Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu’ from a certain Ioan Comnenul, a Greek scholar who first had this work printed at Snagov Monastery in 1701 28.

In conclusion, by analysing the two aspects—architectural and iconographic—in tandem, we can say that Polovragi Monastery has succeeded in preserving this treasure of history and ecclesiastical art to the present day, intact and well-preserved. This is due, first and foremost, to the skill with which the teams of painters from the Brâncoveanu school succeeded in adorning this priceless jewel of the ecclesiastical heritage of the Romanian Orthodox Church. In recent years, through the direct involvement of His Eminence Father Irineu, Archbishop of Craiova and Metropolitan of Oltenia, the church at Polovragi Monastery has been fully restored, regaining the ‘chromatic freshness’ of its heyday. The areas affected by the passage of time have also been restored, with the missing elements being seamlessly integrated into the existing style. In addition to the elements presented, which largely relate to the mural paintings, another exemplary example here is the iconostasis of the Church of the Dormition at Polovragi. ‘Carved from wood, gilded and painted in vivid shades of blue and red, it was adorned by the same Brâncoveanu master painters. It was restored between 2007 and 2012 by a team led by the expert restorer Mihaela Nacu. The inscriptions on the imperial icons mention, in Romanian, the years 1704–1705 and the painters Istrate and Hranit, whilst the inscription on the patronal icon states that these icons “were made by me, the humble Ioan, the abbot of Hurezi”, followed by an incomplete date, which was first read as 1708–1709, and later as 1699–1700. Most likely, however, the iconostasis—which is mentioned amongst Archimandrite Ioan’s works for the decoration of the church—was created during the same period as the murals. The icons are painted in vivid, picturesque colours and are in clear stylistic harmony with the murals inside the church29

III. The three thematic cycles of the iconographic canon: dogmatic, festal and liturgical

Undoubtedly, we can say that Orthodox iconography is an art. However, there is also a much deeper dimension which the Church has cultivated through this outward manifestation of expression and form. These are the three thematic dimensions of the icon: dogmatic, liturgical and festive. For this reason, iconography can be defined as ‘theological art, since it expresses, represents and makes visible, through forms and colours, the same content expressed in written documents’30

In relation to the subject it depicts visually through colour and artistic expression, the icon in particular and mural painting in general can be classified into three thematic cycles, recorded in the iconographic programme as: The Dogmatic Cycle (Dogmatikos Kyklos) – featuring elements of a theological nature (figures or events); The Liturgical Cycle (Leitourgikos Kiklos) – highlighting the liturgical elements of the life of the Church; The Festal Cycle (Heortastikos Kyklos) – including the most important feasts of the church year.

III.1. The Dogmatic Cycle (Dogmatikos Kyklos)

It is present in three distinct architectural areas, following the classical typology of Byzantine basilicas: 1. The section above the central doorway between the narthex and the nave; 2. The dome; and 3. The semi-dome of the main eastern apse. The iconographic theme has a wholly distinct theological significance, adding a rich theological content to the artistic framework, highlighted by the details that constitute the scene or the figure itself. There is, in essence, a well-reasoned theological basis—and one that is also extremely useful for exegesis—through which the representations of the dogmatic cycle are defined.

· In the first location mentioned—the partition between the narthex and the nave—we almost always find the icon of Christ the Saviour depicted as the ‘Door’ or as the ‘Teacher’. The theological basis for this is found in John 10:9: ‘I am the door; if anyone enters through Me, he will be saved’. We also find a quasi-similar biblical argument in other relevant texts, such as: ‘You have but one Teacher: Christ’ (Matthew 23:8–10); ‘I am the Way, the Truth and the Life. No one comes to the Father except through Me’ (John 14:6); ‘I am the Light of the world; whoever follows Me will not walk in darkness, but will have the light of life’ (John 8:12). With these biblical and dogmatic affirmations, ‘Jesus is depicted either in full figure, seated on a throne, or as a bust. In both icons, Christ is depicted blessing with his right hand and holding in his left an open Holy Gospel at one of the verses quoted, written in capital letters within it’31).

· Christ Pantocrator is the image placed in the highest part of the church, in the main dome. There are several biblical arguments for the dogmatic expression of the Pantocrator, but the primary theological source is found first and foremost in the Orthodox Creed: ‘I believe in One God, the Father Almighty (Pantocrator)’. The image is always depicted as a bust, with the right hand giving the sign of blessing and the left hand holding open the Holy Gospel.

The Pantocrator of Polovragi Monastery fits naturally within the Brâncoveanu iconographic tradition, whilst also adhering to the classical elements of the iconographic typikon. It is true, however, that without the Pantocrator we cannot conceive of the existence of an iconographic programme. It is, in fact, impossible for a place of worship to be without the protection of the divine Provider and Almighty Father. On the other hand, whilst in the analysis of pictorial iconography according to architectural principles we always begin with the presentation of the Altar—the first theme being that of the Orans Mother of God—within the thematic context of iconographic cycles, the primary major theme is the Pantocrator. With rich dogmatic implications, He, the Almighty God, conveys a powerful dogmatic message through colour and the mastery of form.

Among the pictorial features of the Pantocrator, his ‘contrasting character’ is most frequently distinguished. A characteristic mode of expression for Byzantine painters—and, by extension, for Polovragi Monastery—this contrast is most clearly evident in the Pantocrator’s face, thereby highlighting two divergent types of portraiture: ‘a naturalistic image of a frail young man and a colossal, almost superhuman figure, rendered in a style that is, by comparison, abstract, hieratic and symbolic’32

The dogmatic essence of this representation has a ‘protective’ quality, eminently embodied in an iconic centrality. In this sense, it can be said that ‘from the central dome of the church, Christ the Pantocrator looks upon and embraces everyone: the angels and the saints who have passed from this life—the latter generally placed on a lower level than the angels—and the living faithful within the church. Christ the Pantocrator guides us, through the angels and the saints, in our present life, towards our future life, towards union with Him, Who calls us to communion with Him, present or coming to meet us on the Holy Table of the Altar. But through the Pantocrator, the angels and the saints, we already have a foretaste of the life to come. And this helps us to move towards an even fuller foretaste of it through Holy Communion with Christ, Who was sacrificed and rose again on the altar”33

Below the Pantocrator and descending towards the nave, we also find other scenes that form part of the Dogmatic Cycle: the Choir of Angels – situated in the upper part of the dome, framed within the first register beneath the Pantocrator; The Prophets – the second register of the tower; The Four Evangelists with their symbols – in the pendentives at the base of the large tower.

· A special place in the iconographic programme of the Dogmatic Cycle is held by the icon of the Mother of God Platytera, or ‘higher than the heavens’, situated in the large apse of the Holy Altar. The dogmatic basis is eloquently described in the numerous liturgical hymns dedicated to her, in which she is referred to as: ‘the Ark of the Heavenly King’; ‘Throne of the Heavenly King’; ‘golden vessel of the divine Manna’, etc. The theme is Christological in nature, closely linked to the Incarnation of Christ the Saviour. The iconographic depiction highlights the Greek monograms: Mitir – Mother; Theou – of God; and Platitera ton ouranon – higher than the heavens. Immediately below the halo of the Infant Christ, on either side, is inscribed: Jesus Christ in abbreviated form, using the first and last letters of the Greek Name: IC HC. And beside the Holy Archangels Michael and Gabriel are inscribed the first three letters of the Greek word ‘archangel’ – O APX, followed by each of their names.

In its wisdom, the Church has decreed that this icon of the Mother of God should preside over the great dome of the Holy Altar. Its role is indispensable, given that without this scene a church cannot be consecrated, not even partially. She is also called the Oranta (the Intercessor) when she is depicted with her hands raised in prayer. In the Church of the ‘Dormition’ at Polovragi Monastery, the Mother of God is depicted seated on a throne, holding the Infant in her arms, who is the one bestowing the blessing. Her connection with the Pantocrator is primarily dogmatic (due to its eminently Christological content), though it can also be justified in practical terms. Thus, ‘before reaching the centre of the church, the believer sees Christ as the Teacher, as the Gate leading to salvation. Upon entering the nave, he sees Christ the Almighty and Judge of the world in the dome, surrounded by the heavenly powers, the prophets and the evangelists. And, looking further, on the vault above the altar, he sees the Mother of God – Platytera – interceding together with her Son for the salvation of the world. This is a truly extraordinary concept in Byzantine art’34

· The icon of ‘The Second Coming of the Lord’ – the Deisis – also forms part of the dogmatic cycle of Byzantine iconography. Like the Pantocrator, it is inspired by the content of the Orthodox Creed: ‘And He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead’. In Greek, the word ‘deisis’ means ‘earnest prayer of intercession’. It is usually found on the western wall of the narthex, arranged in such a way as to be as clearly visible as possible to all the faithful taking part in the service. Here is a comprehensive description of it: ‘At the centre of the composition stands Christ within a circular “halo” (mandorla), seated on a throne, surrounded by many angels. To His right stands the Mother of God, and to His left, Saint John the Forerunner, both bowed in prayer. Christ is blessing with both hands, and on His chest rests the Holy Gospel, open at the following words: ‘Come, you who are blessed by my Father; take your inheritance, the kingdom prepared for you since the foundation of the world!’ (Matthew XXV, 34). Above Him is inscribed: ‘Jesus Christ, the glory and joy of the world’. He is met by multitudes of saints: apostles, prophets, martyrs, hierarchs, monks and the righteous, both women and men’35

The ‘Deisis’ at Polovragi depicts Christ the Saviour enthroned on the Seat of Judgement. In His right hand He holds the Holy Gospel closed, whilst with His right hand He bestows a blessing. He is clothed in a purple mantle and a red tunic, his head uncovered, displaying the same features and gestures as in the icon of the Pantocrator. To his right stands the Mother of God, clad in a red mantle and a purple chlamys; her countenance is humble, her gaze cast down. Her right hand is extended towards Christ the Saviour, pointing to ‘The Way’ for all who look upon Him and pray to Him. Her left hand rests over her heart. To the left of the Throne we find Saint John the Baptist, with a stern gaze, clad in a vernil-coloured cloak and a purple tunic. The haloes of the three figures are embossed, with that on the Saviour’s head bearing a particularly prominent Holy Cross. The setting captures several distinctive details, which we can make out on the pedestal upon which the Throne of Judgement rests and in the space beneath the Lord’s feet.

The dogmatic substance of this icon complements its iconographic distinctiveness, highlighting every gesture of the three figures. Exegetes say that the Deesis generally represents ‘the model of the Church in prayer’. Furthermore, in this icon we find a typological representation of our own judgement. We find ourselves in the presence of the most important role models to follow in our earthly life, from whom we undoubtedly derive guidance on how we ought to be. ‘Christ the Judge holds the Gospel: this is judgement through the Word; yet, in the composition of the Deisis—reduced to these three figures—it is also judgement through models, through archetypes. Judgement includes its immanent aspect: the vision of the face as conceived by God. The Virgin and Saint John are God’s thoughts regarding the feminine and the masculine; they are their normative truths, made manifest. Any being, upon beholding them, judges itself… At the centre lies the totality, the content of the Word, incarnate in Christ the God-Man, and then that same wisdom in its gradual revelation, flowing forth from Christ and manifesting itself in its historical, human and archetypal incarnations: the Virgin Mary and Saint John36”.

III.2. The Liturgical Cycle (Leitourgikos Kiklos)

Closely linked to the Holy Altar, the liturgical cycle comprises the following scenes: the Divine Liturgy or Heavenly Liturgy; the Communion of the Apostles; and the Holy Hierarchs. The iconological argument ‘is linked, on the one hand, to the symbolism of the Holy Altar as a heavenly altar, and on the other hand, to the Divine Liturgy, by whose mystical prayers it is inspired’37.

· The scene of the Divine Liturgy is depicted beneath the icon of the Mother of God – Platytera, with the following composition: “In the centre is a canopy, called kouvoriklion in Greek, beneath which lies the Holy Table (Hagia Trapeza) or Altar. On the Holy Table lies the Holy Gospel, and above it a six-winged seraphim. Christ, dressed in priestly vestments but without a mitre, stands beside the Holy Table, blessing with both hands. He is depicted twice: to the left of the Holy Table and to its right. Angels in the form of young men, beardless and dressed in deacon’s vestments, set out from the northern (left-hand) side of the Holy Table, carrying the Holy Gifts on their heads. In front of them walk other angels, carrying candles and censers. The angels turn towards the right-hand side of the Holy Table, where they are received by Jesus. At the top of the composition is the inscription H ΤΕΙΑ ΛΕΙΤΟΡΓΙΑ (The Holy Liturgy)38’.

· The Communion of the Apostles is depicted in the apse, beneath the scene of the Divine Liturgy. Here we find Christ the Saviour depicted twice, to the right and to the left of the Holy Table, facing the Holy Apostles as they approach Him to receive His Divine Body and His Divine Blood. Above this scene we find the biblical Eucharistic exhortation: ‘Take, eat; this is My Body… Drink from this, all of you; this is My Blood of the new covenant…’. This beautiful depiction has strong biblical connotations, implicitly recalling the moment of the Last Supper, when the Lord instituted the Divine Mystery of Holy Communion. It is worth noting that the event of the Apostles’ Communion is depicted as taking place in a church, not in a house, as recounted by the Evangelists. The iconographer also captures the moment when Judas leaves the gathering, spits out the Holy Communion and goes to betray Jesus.

· Depictions of the Holy Hierarchs are situated in the lower register of the iconography of the Holy Altar. Most often, we find depicted the authors of the Divine Liturgies used in the Orthodox Church: Saint John Chrysostom, Saint Basil the Great and Saint Gregory the Dialogist. They occupy the central part of the register, flanked by other hierarchical figures such as Saint Cyril of Alexandria, Saint Spyridon of Trimitunda, Saint Athanasius the Great, etc. The hierarchs’ gaze is directed towards the Holy Table, usually in the apse of the central window, where the Infant Christ is depicted, seated upon the Holy Disc, with the inscription: ‘The Lamb of God, who is broken but not divided, who is eaten forever and never runs out, but sanctifies those who partake of Him’.

Within the Holy Altar, we shall also find other figures and scenes belonging to the liturgical cycle. Thus, the deacons Stephen and Lawrence are often depicted on the Proskomidia table. Furthermore, in the same context, we may find a depiction of Saint Romanos the Melodist or the scene of ‘The Entombment of the Lord’. On the opposite side, liturgically known as the ‘Diaconicon’, we find several prophets and saints depicted; on the right is Melchizedek, ‘King of Salem’, ‘priest of the Most High God’ (cf. Genesis 14:18). In some places of worship, we find a depiction of ‘Abraham’s Sacrifice’, positioned on the iconostasis, perpendicular to the Holy Table.

III.3. The Festal Cycle (Heortastikos Kyklos)

This thematic framework of the ecclesiastical iconographic programme comprises the 12 feast-day icons (Dodekaeorton), as follows: 1. The Annunciation; 2. The Nativity of the Lord; 3. The Baptism of the Lord; 4. The Meeting of the Lord; 5. The Transfiguration; 6. The Raising of Lazarus; 7. The Entry into Jerusalem; 8. The Crucifixion; 9. The Resurrection; 10. The Ascension; 11. Pentecost; 12. The Dormition of the Mother of God.

With regard to the iconographic arrangement, the theological content and the positioning of the scenes in the Festal Cycle, the Greek exegete Constantine Cavarnos adds the following: ‘In churches painted in a wholly traditional manner, the feast cycle in the naos includes, in addition to the Dodekaeorton, other scenes from the life of the Saviour and the Mother of God, such as: The Healing of the Paralysed Man, The Healing of the Man Born Blind, Christ’s Conversation with the Samaritan Woman, the Nativity of the Mother of God, the Entry of the Mother of God into the Church, and major events in the history of the Church, such as the Exaltation of the Holy Cross and the Ecumenical Councils. Their number varies depending on the space available for iconographic representation. The saints are depicted in the nave: in the first register, above the pews, they are shown standing, whilst in the upper registers they are depicted as busts, often enclosed in medallions. The faces of the saints, as well as scenes of martyrdom and other events, also appear on the walls of the narthex39”.

• 1

  I.D. Ștefănescu, The Iconography of Byzantine Art and Romanian Feudal Painting, Bucharest, 1973, p. 9.

• 2

  Archimandrite Maximos Constans, The Art of Seeing: Paradox and Perception in Orthodox Iconography, trans. Dragoș Dâscă, Doxologia, Bucharest, 2017, pp. 45–46.

• 3

  Rev. Prof. Dr Ene Braniște, General Liturgy – with an introduction to ecclesiastical art, architecture and Christian painting, Vol. II, Basilica Publishers, Bucharest, 2015, p. 66.

• 4

  A. Hackel, ‘Der Kirchenbau als Symbol’, in Der Christliche Osten. Geist und Gestalt, Regensburg, 1939, p. 303.

• 5

  I.D. Ștefănescu, Religious Painting in Wallachia and Transylvania, Paris, 1932, p. 52; O. Tafrali, Byzantine Monuments of Curtea de Argeș, Paris, 1931, p. 52; Ene Braniște, General Liturgy, vol. II, p. 79.

• 6

  See: The Life of Saint Peter of Alexandria, in St Dosoftei of Moldavia, The Lives of the Saints (1686), under 24 November; cf. G. Millet, ‘La vision de Pierre d’Alexandrie’, in Mélanges Charles Diehl, vol. II, Paris, 1930, pp. 99–115.

• 7

  A. Popa, Săracă Monastery, Timiș, 1943, p. 30.

• 8

  A detail noted on the memorial list painted in the church’s proskomidia: “Remember, O Lord, Andreiu, Simion, Istrate and Hranit, the painters who were once here; 5 August, year 7211”.

• 9

  Archimandrite Timotei Aioanei, Florin Șinca, Elisabeta Negrău, Polovragi, The Monastery Close to Heaven. History, Spirituality, Art, a volume published with the blessing of His Eminence Irineu, Archbishop of Craiova and Metropolitan of Oltenia, 2012, pp. 63–64.

• 10

  Rev. Prof. Dr Ene Braniște, General Liturgy…, vol. II, pp. 93–94.

• 11

  Rev. Prof. Dr Ene Braniște, General Liturgy…, vol. II, p. 99.

• 12

  V. Grecu, Books on Byzantine Ecclesiastical Painting, Chernivtsi, 1936, p. 318.

• 13

  V. Grecu, Books on Byzantine Church Painting…, p. 137.

• 14

  Fr. Ene Braniște, The Iconographic Programme, pp. 17–18.

• 15

  V. Grecu, Books on Byzantine Church Painting…, p. 304.

• 16

  Rev. Prof. Dr Ene Braniște, General Liturgy…, vol. II, p. 124.

• 17

  Rev. Prof. Dr Ene Braniște, General Liturgy…, vol. II, p. 134.

• 18

  Dionisie of Furna, Erminia of Byzantine Painting, Ed. Sofia, Bucharest, 2000, pp. 153–154.

• 19

  Radu Crețeanu, ‘The Church at Baia de Aramă’, in Mitropolia Olteniei, no. 10–12/1955, pp. 578–579.

• 20

  Polovragi – The Monastery Near Heaven, p. 66.

• 21

  Polovragi – The Monastery Near Heaven, pp. 72–73.

• 22

  Polovragi – The Monastery Near Heaven, p. 74.

• 23

  See Exodus 33:18–23 and 3 Kings 19:9–13.

• 24

  God is alive. Orthodox Catechism, translated into Romanian with an afterword by Fr. Ioan Nicolae, Reîntregirea, Alba Iulia, 2009, pp. 105–106.

• 25

  Polovragi – The Monastery Near Heaven, pp. 82–85.

• 26

  Polovragi – The Monastery Near Heaven, p. 88.

• 27

  Polovragi – The Monastery Near Heaven, p. 96.

• 28

  Ioan Comnenul, Proskeynearion tou Hagiou Orous tou Athonos, Snagov, 1701; Eleonora Costescu, ‘The Image of Mount Athos in the Exornartex of Polovragi (Vâlcea, Romania)’, Balkan Studies, 1973, no. 2, pp. 308–312.

• 29

  V. Brătulescu, ‘Polovragi Monastery’, in Bulletin of the Commission for Historical Monuments, XXXIII (1940), p. 7; Alexandru Efremov, Romanian Icons, Bucharest, 2003, pp. 65–66; Polovragi – The Monastery Near Heaven, p. 98.

• 30

  Fr Stephane Bigham, The Icon in the Orthodox Tradition, translated by Diana Preda and Cornel Apostol, Theosis, Oradea, 2016, p. 57.

• 31

  Constantine Cavarnos, A Guide to Byzantine Iconography, 2nd edition, trans. Anca Popescu, Ed. Sofia, Bucharest, 2001, p. 41.

• 32

  Archimandrite Maximos Constas, The Art of Seeing: Paradox and Perception in Orthodox Iconography, translated from English by Dragoș Dâscă, Doxologia, Iași, 2017, p. 77.

• 33

  Dr Bogdan Botezatu, Divine Worship and the Image: The Theology and Liturgical Function of the Icon, Ed. Andreiană, Sibiu, 2013, p. 273.

• 34

  G.A. Soteriou, ‘Hoi Eikonographiloi Kykloi tou Byzantinou Naou’ (‘The Iconographic Cycles of the Byzantine Church’), Nea Hestia, Christmas Issue, 1955, pp. 410–411.

• 35

  Constantine Cavarnos, A Guide to Byzantine Iconography, pp. 50–51.

• 36

  Paul Evdokimov, Woman and the Salvation of the World, Christiana, Bucharest, 2015, p. 238.

• 37

  George A. Soteriou, ‘Hoi Eikonographiloi Kykloi tou Byzantinou Naou’, p. 411.

• 38

  Constantine Cavarnos, A Guide to Byzantine Iconography, pp. 56–57.

• 39

  Constantine Cavarnos, A Guide to Byzantine Iconography, p. 63.