: “Ortodoxa” (p. 31, instead of “Ortodoxă”); the year “992” in the Bibliography (probably 1992). -->
In today’s knowledge-based society, the values of humanism continue to guide human creativity in a constructive direction, protecting the human person and their dignity from the risks of dehumanisation and instrumentalisation. As far back as antiquity, in philosophical ethics, Aristotle emphatically stressed that progress in knowledge must not be separated from moral progress in virtue.
According to the classical Christian and philosophical principles of humanism, human dignity and personal freedom cannot be treated as means, but must be respected as values in themselves and recognised as ends in themselves. This personalist norm of human dignity and respect for the value of the human person is also taken up by modern philosophical ethics through the formulation of Immanuel Kant’s categorical imperative, a legacy of classical thought, which is now integrated into the common European cultural sphere.
In today’s ‘knowledge society’ and ‘knowledge economy’, the human factor – viewed as ‘labour’ or ‘human capital’ – must not be instrumentalised or dehumanised for the sake of economic gain or the pursuit of political ends. Respect for the values of humanism entails upholding classical Christian norms and ethical standards in both the field of education and the socio-economic sphere. Thus, the human being cannot be reduced to a mere means of securing material well-being, and education must not be conceived exclusively as a system for preparing ‘human capital’ for the ‘labour market’. Numerous specialists in the fields of ethics and the humanities emphasise the need to preserve spiritual values and moral virtues, as well as their integration into the contemporary educational model by restoring the natural link between instruction and education and achieving a balance between the acquisition of knowledge and the development of values.
Numerous specialists emphasise the need to preserve spiritual values and moral virtues, as well as to integrate them into the contemporary educational model, by restoring the natural link between instruction and education and achieving a balance between the acquisition of knowledge and the development of values.
In recent years, the Bulgarian educational sector has debated the possibilities of rediscovering and integrating Christian values and virtues into schools, with the aim of strengthening the link between academic content and universal moral virtues. Thus, the state school is called upon to fulfil not only its educational role, but also its formative and civilising function, becoming a guardian of the humanist and Enlightenment spirit, and actively contributing to pupils’ personal development and social integration.
Legislative regulations on school education address precisely such objectives, in the spirit of common European values; in other words: an integrative approach to knowledge and virtues with a view to the spiritual and moral formation and the holistic development of pupils’ personalities within the education system.
Humanism, in its broadest sense – as humanity and humaneness (Latin: humanitas) – signifies respect for and recognition of the high dignity of the human being. In this positive and value-based sense, humanism is upheld by the world’s major monotheistic religions, which emphasise the central place of humankind in the hierarchy of divine creation (cf. Genesis 1:26–28) and affirm the sanctity of human life as a priceless gift from God.
In accordance with the authentic values and traditions of the revealed Christian faith and of Holy Scripture, every human person possesses inviolable dignity, being a free, rational being responsible for their own actions before God, their own conscience and their neighbour. Every person has the right to life, to freedom of conscience and religion, as well as the responsibility to develop creatively the gifts and talents received from God as spiritual gifts.
1. Human dignity, personal freedom and the Christian values of humanism
Christian moral virtues, the well-founded spiritual ideals and values concerning human dignity and personal freedom, the values of humanism and enlightened self-government, which shaped the spirit of the Middle Ages and the Bulgarian Renaissance, were integrated – through the work of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church and its ministers – into the foundations of the new national education system of the modern Bulgarian state following the Liberation, defining the spiritual path of the Bulgarian nation well into the 20th century.
Christian values at the dawn of the modern era and on the threshold of modernity manifested themselves within the framework of Renaissance humanism and the European Enlightenment, taking on a distinct spiritual orientation, towards a movement of Christian revival and enlightenment, founded on the ideas of freedom and human dignity, which are universal and equal. Depending on the specific characteristics of each European nation and people, this humanist movement took various forms, but everywhere it manifested itself as a spiritual current aimed at revitalising culture and education through Christian preaching and teaching, conveyed in a language accessible and intelligible to the people.
At the dawn of the Bulgarian Renaissance, European ideas concerning freedom and equality before the law, equal opportunities for development, access to education, universal literacy, economic initiative and political independence were in line with both the Christian principles of human dignity and the modern values of the emerging Europe: liberty, equality and fraternity amongst nations.
Numerous Christian clergymen and preachers from Western Europe, such as Jan Hus, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Martin Luther, Jean Calvin and others, distinguished themselves as promoters of this modern humanist movement, in the spirit of the Renaissance and the Reformation. In Bulgaria, Renaissance luminaries and figures such as Saint Pimen of Zograf and the Venerable Paisius of Hilandar took up the educational mission, rediscovering the cultural and spiritual legacy of Saints Cyril and Methodius, alongside other Orthodox clergy, who continued these traditions of Christian humanism in its Eastern forms.
Great figures of modern Bulgaria, such as Archimandrite Neofit Bozveli, Saint Sophronius of Vratsa, the hieromonk Neofit of Rila and many of their disciples and successors, assimilated the spiritual values and cultural standards of European humanism and the Enlightenment, thus contributing to the development of the Bulgarian Church’s modern educational system through an extensive network of teachers, priests, scholars and writers.
The teachers of the spiritual revival are educators and enlighteners of the people, champions of human dignity and freedom, who keep the Christian faith and moral values alive in the consciences of the faithful and the people, fulfilling their vocation by preaching the Word of God and laying the spiritual foundations of Bulgarian education and culture in the mother tongue, in the living language of the people. They are disciples of Christ and witnesses to the values and virtues of the Gospel, teachers of the Church and witnesses to the faith, who laid the foundations of the new Christian teaching and national culture in the modern Bulgarian language. Before God and the people, they dedicated their lives to a self-sacrificing ecclesiastical ministry, called to awaken, enlighten, educate and spiritually uplift, free from bondage and save the faithful Bulgarian people, amidst foreign political and spiritual domination. They are scholars and enlighteners, humble servants and tireless labourers in God’s field, devoted workers for their nation and their homeland. Through their dedication, these men embody a Christian ideal and a modern approach, much like itinerant preachers and teachers, who undertake a labour that is both beneficial to the nation and profoundly human, in the name of God and the Bulgarian people, driven, first and foremost, by their strong faith and fervent patriotism, but also by a moral sense of freedom, human dignity, human rights and the common good.
2. Spiritual enlightenment, human dignity and the virtues of Christian humanism
Bulgarian Renaissance culture is characterised by the interplay of a range of factors – spiritual, cultural, political, economic, social and ecclesiastical – which, through their combined action, led to a profound transformation of the collective consciousness and a spiritual renewal that defined the life of the Bulgarian people in the 18th and 19th centuries. Humanist impulses and Enlightenment motivations are essential features of modern culture and of the moral changes that accompanied the transition from traditional to modern society. The values of Renaissance humanism intertwine with the spiritual motifs of Romanticism, whilst modern aspirations for individual freedoms and human rights are joined by the struggles for ecclesiastical independence, for the celebration of worship and for prayer in the living language of the people, as an expression of the cultural rights of a community in the midst of an awakening, in the transition towards the formation of the modern nation. In this sense, the moral and spiritual transformations of our compatriots at the dawn of the modern era can be examined from multiple perspectives and analysed in terms of the cultural connections and dimensions involved. Without downplaying the complexity of the factors and influences involved in the process of spiritual reawakening, cultural renewal and the reform of the moral life of the Bulgarian people during this period, we aim to focus our attention on Christian morality and traditional spirituality as essential sources of the renewal movement and as determining factors in the crystallisation of a modern culture specific to the Bulgarian Renaissance.
In the work and character of all spiritual mentors, scholars and teachers, priests and church ministers, we recognise the educational dimension of their mission – they are preachers who awaken the conscience of the faithful by proclaiming the Gospel and the word of God, ministers who lay down their lives for their flock, aiming to bring about a profound spiritual transformation, a rebirth and a reawakening of religious and patriotic sentiment in the faithful through repentance, but also to correct and awaken consciences in the struggle against ignorance, error and sin.
These spiritual enlighteners seek to free the people from the bondage of ignorance and sin, from forgetfulness and sloth, from error and from perverted, heterodox faith. They bear witness to the truth of Christ and the pure faith of the Church, fostering an awareness of the dignity and historical grandeur of the Bulgarian Church, of Bulgarian statehood, as well as the holy heritage of the faith and a glorious ecclesiastical past. Alongside the cultivation of historical memory and spiritual awareness of the past, they also turn their attention to the challenges and difficulties of the present, as well as to the responsibilities that lie ahead.
On this path of spiritual enlightenment, the Venerable Paisius of Hilandar, together with his disciples and successors, seeks to awaken and keep alive the awareness of human dignity and national justice, promoting a cultural and literary revival that will restore the grandeur of the Bulgarian national identity and the autonomy of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. The system of values proposed by the Venerable Paisius and his successors – grounded in Christianity and patriotism, humanism and human dignity – entails a renewal of spiritual and social life through widespread education and instruction in the people’s language and through the development of a modern school system, built upon the foundations of church-run spiritual schools and monastic literary centres.
Through this path of renewal, by revitalising Christian traditions and through the struggle for church-based education and national independence, Christian principles and ideas of justice and human dignity are consolidated as fundamental values of moral culture and spiritual life, guiding the course of historical development and shaping the moral character of the age. These moral principles and values of Christian humanism encompass a broad spectrum of spiritual traditions and moral norms, remaining open to innovative influences through the synthesis of national heritage and modern European culture. Through their universal and profoundly human content, they preserve the traditional Christian spiritual heritage and build a bridge towards modern progress and the European orientations of the future.
3. Christian virtues in the Bulgarian Renaissance and the modern values of humanism
In the gradual process of spiritual awakening and moral development that accompanied the formation of the national revival movement – a new spiritual and educational mission, directed towards society as a whole, intended to bring the light of knowledge, education and human dignity to every individual – a profoundly Bulgarian Christian conception of humanity and philanthropy took shape, of universal literacy and free access to education and culture, understood as instruction and enlightenment addressed to every believer and member of the Church.
The Church’s educational and literary work is founded on the spiritual legacy of Saints Cyril and Methodius and their disciples, bequeathed to the Bulgarian Church hierarchy, which is entrusted with the mission of serving the people of God by preaching the Gospel and continuing the work of spiritual enlightenment of the Bulgarian people ‘of one race and one blood’ (cf. the Testament of Saint John of Rila), through authentic and active preaching, delivered in a new Bulgarian language that is accessible to the people, clear and easy to understand.
Bishop Sophronius of Vratsa was deeply convinced that true Christian education, springing from the Gospel, is the foundation of well-being, whilst ignorance is the source of spiritual enslavement and misery. The teachings of the Gospel and the truths of Christ must be received with firm and unshakeable faith, so that they may contribute to salvation and the renewal of life through grace. Sofronie transposed into the Renaissance era the same spiritual principles of the general education of Christians, principles which formed the basis of the literary schools at Preslav and Ohrid, as well as the liturgical and scholarly work of Saint Euthymius, Patriarch of Tarnovo, and the work of spiritual revival carried out by Saint Paisius of Hilandar.
Bishop Sophronius of Vratsa was deeply convinced that true Christian education, springing from the Gospel, is the foundation of well-being, whilst ignorance is the source of spiritual enslavement and misery.
Sofronie of Vratsa is the bearer of these Christian, spiritual and educational, ecclesiastical and patriotic traditions within the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, which he succeeds in realising under the new conditions of the modern era, whilst taking into account the pastoral needs of his people. Spiritual education, in his view, is the fundamental duty of the Church’s ministers as shepherds of the faithful. If they fail to fulfil this mission, they are guilty of a grave sin before God. Spiritual education and enlightenment through the truths of the Gospel are beneficial and salvific for every person and, therefore, constitute an inestimable spiritual treasure. Sophrony compares them to the spiritual talent in the ‘Parable of the Talents’, told by the Saviour. The hierarch urges all his spiritual children and the ministers of the Church to strive zealously for this spiritual good and not to abandon their studies, lest they become like the lazy and deceitful servant in the Gospel parable (Matthew 25:26–30).
Following the Gospel principles of Christian charity, Sophronius of Vratsa developed a system of fundamental ethical and social principles, which he began to apply first to the organisation of church life, and subsequently to the wider sphere of society. The social concepts of this remarkable Bulgarian scholar and intellectual from the late 18th and early 19th centuries are imbued with a profound Christian sense of ecclesiastical duty, freedom, service to one’s neighbour and love for one’s nation. These are closely linked to the Bulgarians’ movement for educational and national emancipation, as well as to the struggle for spiritual enlightenment and for an independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church.
According to Sophronius of Vratsa, the struggle to preserve the Orthodox faith is directly linked to the endeavour for spiritual education and ecclesiastical autonomy.
Rooted for centuries in the Christian faith and the spiritual culture of the Church, the Bulgarians were an integral part of the cultural community of the Christian peoples of Europe; they established their Church, state and their own civilisation on the Christian model, whilst experiencing the dramatic decline and collapse of their Christian state under the blows of foreign invaders. The loss of political independence and freedom, as well as falling under the yoke of a foreign invader, were perceived as a humiliation of the dignity of the Bulgarians as a Christian people and, at the same time, as a test of their faith and the strength of their Christian conscience. This constitutes one of the grounds for the Christian belief concerning God’s judgement upon the Orthodox peoples of the Balkans, who were delivered into foreign rule and into the hands of different nations and faiths, according to God’s will and providence. However, when the times of trial are over, God, in His love for mankind, will bless their liberation and show favour towards the restoration of the Bulgarian state.
Despite the historical upheavals and the turmoil caused by national catastrophes and the collapse of Renaissance ideals, political crises and undemocratic regimes, Christian humanism continues to be present in the value system of the Bulgarian people, influencing social decisions and the social mission of the Church at critical moments.
4. Christian humanism and the social mission of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church in the 20th century and the early 21st century
Christian humanism and love for humanity were manifested and expressed in many ways throughout the 20th century in the struggle for spiritual enlightenment and human dignity, for freedom of conscience and human rights, through the support given to refugees and people of other nationalities, as well as through the courageous involvement in saving Bulgarian Jews from the inhuman policies of Nazism during the Second World War. These values kept the faith and spiritual culture of Christians alive during the totalitarian communist regime and formed the foundation for the preservation of humanity and charity, freedom of conscience and fundamental human rights, which are so essential to personal life and the development of contemporary society.
In recent decades, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church has found itself in a new socio-cultural, political and missionary context; it is renewing its spiritual mission under different conditions and facing new challenges. Among its current tasks is, to a large extent, the need for a serious renewal of its missionary and spiritual ministry, in the context of a constantly changing modern world and in the face of the challenges posed by a complex, dynamic and profoundly pluralistic culture, characteristic of contemporary humanity, and the contradictory trends in the development of a society undergoing globalisation.
The new socio-political conditions and the process of democratisation in the countries of Eastern Europe have led to a revival of Christian humanism with regard to the values of freedom of conscience and fundamental human rights, social mission and Christian charity, solidarity and charitable work – expressions of Christian love for one’s neighbour and compassion for the weakest, poorest and most needy members of society. This process of humanising social morality is, however, accompanied by the challenges posed by new forms of dehumanisation and depersonalisation, by new spiritual addictions and losses of human freedom and dignity, as well as by the emergence of postmodern ideologies concerning human identity, which threaten the integrity of the person and point the way towards non-Christian ethical systems, post-Christian ideologies or alternative cultural models and visions, such as those of a transhumanist nature.
In the contemporary world, two parallel trends can be observed: on the one hand, processes of dehumanisation, marked secularisation and desacralisation, and on the other hand, increasingly visible processes of spiritual awakening, religious revival and cultural renewal of Christian values, the revitalisation of church communities and the emergence of new forms of religious culture and contemporary Christian mission. This Christian spiritual and moral culture of our time is closely linked to the process of rehumanisation and the rediscovery of the values of Christian humanism, as well as to the spiritual transcendence of the phenomenon of dehumanisation or the transition towards the postmodern culture of transhumanism.
This return to the spiritual values of Christianity – the rediscovery, in a new light, of humanity’s spiritual needs and the quest for personal spiritual growth, and the orientation towards the sacred in a new post--secular context – constitutes a spiritual movement that also encompasses the process of renewing the Christian value system of humanism. Numerous contemporary theologians and philosophers, historians and cultural anthropologists, sociologists and political scientists discuss these processes and trends in contemporary spiritual culture and within the postmodern context in various ways.
The rediscovery of humanity’s spiritual needs and the quest for personal spiritual growth, as well as the orientation towards the sacred in a new post-– constitute a spiritual movement that also encompasses the renewal of humanism’s Christian value system.
Whether we define this phenomenon as a spiritual revival, a desecularisation of the world or a ‘revival of the sacred in secularised culture’, as contemporary Christian thinkers such as Leszek Kołakowski and Michael Novak call it, or whether we understand it as a transition towards new post-industrial values, in line with the sociological perspectives of Daniel Bell and Peter Berger, we are faced with new spiritual phenomena and a new religious reality, which call for research using a new methodology and an interpretation from a distinct perspective of their moral, spiritual, cultural and anthropological dimensions. One of these recent phenomena, which reflects the revival of the spiritual values of Christian humanism, is the movements of spiritual renewal within the Orthodox Church, both in Europe and worldwide, and, in particular, the intensification of missionary activity and religious education within the local Orthodox Churches of Eastern Europe following the collapse of the totalitarian regime and the decline of communist atheist ideology.
5. Humanism and Christian solidarity in times of crisis, conflict and social calamities
According to the contemporary secular view, human beings are regarded as the absolute masters of their own being and lives, holding control over their bodies and souls, and able to dispose of them as they please. This spiritual attitude leads to an anthropocentric humanism and an egocentric individualism. Taken to extremes, this type of individualism undermines the axiological foundations of the human community and leads to the disintegration of the social order, which is based on values such as humanism, justice and solidarity. In the view of anthropocentric humanism, human beings shape their own destiny, independent of any transcendent authority or moral standard. At times, they even instrumentalise their own body to achieve maximum pleasure and satisfaction, thereby becoming the primary factor in determining their own health and happiness. Naturalist or atheistic humanism assumes that man is destined to live for happiness and pleasure in this world, and that personal desires become the absolute norm for his actions and behaviour. In a secularised mindset, the principle of ‘human rights’, derived exclusively from nature, logically leads to the assertion and legitimisation of the right to choose for oneself the time and manner of one’s death.
At critical moments, such as armed conflicts, pandemics, waves of refugees, environmental catastrophes or natural disasters—when the whole of society faces real threats—love for one’s fellow human beings, solidarity, generosity and charitable initiatives prove to be living and concrete expressions of goodness and humanism. These become the means by which communities must act in unison to confront the common danger and to protect the lives and health of their fellow human beings facing unexpected suffering.
In the face of today’s disasters, armed conflicts and the risk of ideological wars – perceived as a test for every individual – the values of humanism and philanthropy are put to the test. Any conscientious and responsible person recognises that such situations call for cooperation, mutual aid and the sharing of available resources.
At critical moments, […] when society as a whole faces real threats, love for one’s fellow human beings, solidarity, generosity and charitable initiatives prove to be living and concrete expressions of goodness and humanism. […] Any conscious and responsible person recognises that such situations call for cooperation, mutual aid and the sharing of available resources.
Humanism involves acting in support of freedom, justice and solidarity, encouraging cooperation and the concrete manifestation of love for one’s neighbour, through active charity and good deeds in support of those in need. In such critical situations, the Church’s Christian call for solidarity and generosity, for mercy and compassion, for charity and brotherly love towards others, manifested in concrete ways, comes to the fore.
The spiritual imperatives of the Christian faith in times of crisis go hand in hand with the moral responsibility for humanitarian and charitable initiatives; this is why the voice of the Church is being heard ever more clearly, calling for increased prayer for deliverance from misfortune, for peace and God’s blessing, but also for the concrete expression of brotherly love, charity and good deeds in these difficult times. It is a call for civic dignity, social responsibility, spiritual discipline and love for one’s fellow human beings; to be mindful of our responsibilities, to observe measures to prevent natural and social disasters, whilst at the same time being sensitive to the most vulnerable and marginalised members of society – those who will be most severely affected, who will lose their jobs or face the threat of poverty.
The Church’s Christian call to humanism and love for others in such circumstances requires us to direct our thoughts and will towards good deeds in support of the elderly, children and those who are alone; and in times of pandemic and social isolation, to support healthcare workers, to help the sick and the infirm, and thus to fulfil the law of Christ’s love.
6. Conclusions and main findings
6.1. The Christian virtues of love for one’s neighbour and humanism are intrinsically linked to human education and freedom, to human dignity and to the fundamental rights of the individual. Christian love for one’s fellow human beings is manifested through universal virtues such as charity, solidarity, tolerance and mutual aid – values which have laid the cultural and civilisational foundations of Europe and of the current legal and social system within the European Union. The latter represents a spiritual framework of humanism and values, of freedom, justice and solidarity, reflected in the educational, economic and cultural spheres of cooperation between the peoples of Europe within contemporary pluralist society. This is a knowledge-based society and economy, a space for scientific and technological progress, built upon the values of humanism and the need to preserve shared universal values.
Christian love for one’s fellow human beings is manifested through universal virtues such as charity, solidarity, tolerance and mutual aid – values which have laid the cultural and civilisational foundations of Europe and of the current legal and social system within the common European space.
6.2. The spiritual forefathers of the Bulgarian National Revival were bearers of the spirit of enlightenment for the people and of Christian values, champions of human dignity and freedom, and continuators of the cultural and educational work of the first Slavic teachers and enlighteners: the holy brothers Cyril and Methodius, St Clement of Ohrid, St John of Rila and Patriarch Euthymius. In contrast to them, the spiritual enlighteners of the Bulgarians, such as St Paisius of Hilandar, St Pimen of Zografou, St Sophronius of Vratsa, the hieromonks Neofit Bozveli and Neofit of Rila, carried out their mission within a new cultural, historical and political context: at the dawn of the modern era and in the absence of a Bulgarian state to support their educational endeavours. They fulfilled their duty to their nation and homeland, to their people and country, as an act of faith and service within the Church. Under these difficult circumstances, the spiritual luminaries of the Bulgarian Renaissance succeeded in preserving and enhancing the spiritual values of Christianity, in defending human freedom and personal dignity, and in laying the foundations for the spiritual reawakening and rebirth of the Bulgarian people.
6.3. Christian humanism and true love for humanity require, first and foremost, that we be human, that we help one another, and that we show solidarity with the weak and needy in the contemporary world. Let us defend human rights and the dignity of the human person, placing our hope in God’s help and the protection of His grace, acting with great calm, responsibility and discernment for the benefit of our neighbour and the common good. Let us stand firmly, courageously and with fortitude on the side of truth and justice, upholding the enduring values of Christian love for our neighbour and interceding with strength and warmth to defend the rights of the vulnerable, without fear or compromise with evil, for the good and well-being of our fellow human beings in difficult or extreme circumstances.
6.4. Christian humanism means charity and altruism, the sharing of values and goods, which entails acting humanely not merely for the sake of personal interest or well-being, not merely to achieve selfish goals and individual gain, but above all for the public good and the general prosperity of society, for the benefit of the community and to support the weakest and most deprived. Let us serve our fellow human beings and strive to contribute to the progress of the entire nation. Every crisis is also an opportunity to manifest spiritual values and moral virtues. As the Church’s prayers tell us, let us perform good deeds in support of our neighbour and for the glory of God, following the path of the Saviour and tangibly demonstrating Christ’s love for those who are suffering and in need. Let us pour out our hearts for our neighbour, let us bear one another’s burdens, and in this way we shall fulfil ‘the law of Christ’. Let us act with courage, responsibility and solidarity for the benefit of the Church and our homeland.
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